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Native
Americans
New York's
very extensive Native American history began with
the early settlement of the Iroquois and the Algonquians
over 3,000 years ago. The Iroquois started to colonize
the Saint Lawrence Valley area in 1000 A.D. During
the six centuries that followed, the Iroquois grew
in number and sophistication to become the strongest
Indian confederacy in the east. By 1300, the Iroquois
lived in developed villages of 1,500 people.(1)
Gathering food and tending the crops was traditionally
the woman's job, while hunting was left for the
men. In addition to maize, they gradually learned
to cultivate beans, squash, and pumpkins. The Iroquois
regularly gathered wild grapes, berries, and nuts.
The tribes moved frequently to allow natural resources
to replenish. The Iroquois religion was very natural
and animistic. They conceived of the land as a living
entity and respected it accordingly. Harvest was
celebrated in a ritualistic way to honor the changing
of the seasons and hunters respected the religious
significance and connection they had to their game.
By the 14th century, the Iroquois became increasingly
involved in wars concerning land and resources.
The frequency of wars gave them a reputation of
an aggressive tribe with a strong warlike culture.
The Iroquois formed a large repertoire of weapons
including bows and arrows, stone hatchets, tomahawks,
war clubs, and wooden shields. After the establishment
of the Dutch New Netherland, Iroquois tribesmen
gained access to firearms. By the end of the 16th
century, the Iroquois had organized a confederacy
with other major tribes to lessen the incidence
of conflict. This confederacy, known as the Five
Nations or the League of the Iroquois, included
the Seneca, Cayuga, Onondaga, Oneida, and Mohawk
tribes, which were all part of the greater Iroquois
cultural group. The Tuscaroras joined later, changing
the name of the confederacy to the Six Nations.
The league consisted of fifty life appointed sachems
who were selected by the head woman of each tribe.
They were responsible for representing their tribes,
keeping peace between the tribes, and coordinating
united attacks. This organization was very useful
when dealing with Europeans. Using their strength
and organization, the Iroquois were able to remain
in control of the fur trade and keep their distance
from the Dutch and English colonizers. This allowed
them to remain a cohesive group for longer than
the neighboring Algonquians to the south, who were
forced to move or assimilate long before the Iroquois.
The Lenni-Lenape,
also known as the Delaware Indians, were the Algonquin
tribe that lived to the south. They inhabited southern
New York, New Jersey, Delaware and Pennsylvania.
Unlike the Iroquois, the Lenni-Lenape were known
for their easygoing nature. The tribes were nomadic
and traveled with the seasons in order to make better
use of the available natural resources, but they
had permanent settlements where they returned in
the winter. During the spring, they planted gardens
of corn, beans, and squash. They foraged for fruits
and nuts, and hunted game and fowl. In the summer
they migrated to the coast to collect oysters and
clams. In autumn, the Lenni-Lenape migrated back
to their settlements to harvest their gardens and
prepare for winter.
The Lenni-Lenape had
a strong culture that included tool-making, religion,
and specific family dynamics. They used wood to
build canoes and utilized stone to build tools.
Jasper, slate, and flint were used to make spear
points, arrowheads, knives, hatchets, hammers, and
jewelry. Their villages were made up of families
related through female lineage, demonstrating the
Lenni-Lenape's respect for the female gender. Male
sachems were chosen by the village ancestress to
regulate laws. The ancestress was also in charge
of the domestic economy of the tribe. Marriage was
decided by the mothers of each person after the
exchange of gifts. The marriage ceremony did not
bind the couple for life, but couples usually remained
together if they had children. The Lenni-Lenape
practiced a very natural religion and believed that
nature was a series of miracles provided by the
Great Spirit. They also believed in lesser spirits
who controlled fire, water, thunder, and other events.
Their burial ceremonies consisted of the deceased
buried in a coffin together with gifts. The people
showed their grief by painting their bodies black
for periods lasting up to a year.
When the Dutch arrived
in the New York/New Jersey area and created New
Netherland, the fate of the Lenni-Lenape began its
slow decline. Through many land transactions, the
English acquired land from the Natives, forcing
them to move. The Lenni-Lenape who chose to stay
faced the horrors of alcoholism and the devastation
from European disease. By 1700, the Lenni-Lenape
population had dwindled from about 2,000 to 500(2).
The remaining Lenni-Lenape sided with the French
during the French and Indian War, but did not find
much success. In 1758, the New Jersey Assembly created
the first Indian Reservation, called Brotherton.
Unfortunately, the reservation did not last; it
was sold in 1801. The profits of the sale were given
to the remaining members. The Oneida Tribe of New
York invited the remaining Lenni-Lenape to live
with them. Some joined the Oneida and some stayed
and assimilated into New Jersey. The Lenni-Lenape
of Brotherton stayed with the Oneida until 1832,
when the combined tribe moved to Wisconsin. Unfortunately
the Lenni-Lenape were unable to remain a cohesive
group because of the displacement caused by the
European settlers.
Early European Explorers
A number of explorers
passed through New York waters before colonization
began in the 17th century. The first European to
sail into and report on New York Bay was the Italian
sailor Giovanni da Verranzano. While sailing for
the King of France in 1524, Verranzano entered the
Lower New York Bay and anchored off of Staten Island.
He did not explore the bay for long and nothing
immediately came of his discovery, but it marked
the beginning of European history in New York. Others
passed by New York without much consequence, such
as the Portuguese explorer, Estevar Gomes in 1525.
The first significant exploration came 84 years
after Gomes landed in New York. In 1609, Henry Hudson
landed in the New York Bay and sailed up the Hudson
River to present-day Albany. Hudson reported in
his journal the beauty of the area. "The land (Albany)
is the finest for cultivation that I ever in my
life set foot upon, and it also abounds in trees
of every description." He claimed the land for the
Dutch and published the first complete descriptions
of New York Bay, Staten Island, and the Hudson River
as well as the coastline reaching up to Cape Cod.
Hudson later returned to the area in search of a
passage to Asia. He made more observations and established
contact with the local Native Americans. He made
another voyage in 1610-1611, which turned out to
be his last. A mutiny broke out on board and Hudson
was never seen again. Henry Hudson's journeys were
very significant, marking the Dutch claim to the
region and leading to the establishment of New Netherland.
Hudson's legacy lives on through namesakes, such
as the Hudson River and Hudson Bay.
The Formation and Politics of
New Netherland
The Dutch interest in an American colony focused
entirely on the fur trade. Dutch merchants financed
several voyages to the Hudson River area between
1611 and 1614 to trade for furs with the Indians.
The market for furs in Europe was so strong that
competition forced the creation of a council that
gave charters to traders that allowed them four
voyages to the Hudson. A trading post was constructed
by the New Netherland Company near Albany shortly
after. This company was the first to refer to the
area as New Netherland. The Dutch West India Company
was formed in 1621, and created a trading colony
in 1624. Their main forts were in Albany and New
Amsterdam (present-day Manhattan). The first colonists
arrived in the spring of 1624. The colony grew slowly
because the majority of money and effort was invested
in trade, not development. Farmers struggled as
they saw the funding for the colony go to trading,
instead of agriculture. Also, wars at Fort Orange
(Albany) forced colonists to congregate near New
Amsterdam, which lessened their influence on the
frontier. To help stimulate colonization in New
Netherland, the patroon system was introduced. The
patroons were private agricultural fiefdoms managed
by the owners and farmed by tenants. The patroons
helped build a landholding aristocracy and increased
colonization of non-fur traders.
The colony continued
to grow and prosper under the leadership of Peter
Stuyvesant, who was governor between 1647 and 1664.
During his reign, Stuyvesant was able to establish
more peaceful relations with the Native Americans
and create boundaries with New England that both
parties agreed upon. An immigration surge in the
1650s doubled the population of the colony. New
Netherland drew non-Dutch immigrants during this
time as well, including Swedes, Finns, Germans,
and Jewish refugees from the failed Dutch colony
in Brazil. The relative peace and prosperity of
the colony allowed Stuyvesant to deal with the neighboring
colony of New Sweden. New Sweden was a trading colony,
similar to New Netherland, which was set up in 1637.
Like the Dutch, the Swedes also wanted to increase
their economic presence in America by becoming involved
in the fur trade. Stuyvesant wanted to take over
the Swedish colony, so when the Swedes took over
the Dutch Fort Casimir, he had an excuse to invade.
He retaliated by sending and army of 300, giving
New Sweden no choice other than a peaceful surrender.
During the 1650s,
rivalries and boundary disputes with Great Britain
foreshadowed the colony's eminent demise. England
claimed the land that New Netherland occupied and
urged the citizens of New England to encroach. The
Hartford Treaty of 1650 set provisional boundaries
between the Dutch and British colonies, but tension
continued. In 1652, during the Anglo-Dutch war in
Europe, residents of New Hampshire took over the
Dutch Fort Good Hope, weakening the Dutch influence
in that area. Tensions rose even higher when the
British sent ships to New England to invade New
Netherland in 1654, but a compromise was met and
peace was held. The Dutch managed to keep peace
with England until 1664, when the British finally
conquered New Netherland.
Dutch Culture and Legacy
The Dutch of New Netherland created a culture that
mixed their Dutch roots with frontier living. Although
intended as a trading colony, New Netherland turned
into a fully functioning community with traders,
farmers, schools, and churches. Most Dutch colonists
attended the Reformed Church on Sundays. Religion
played an important role in the settlers' lives.
Frontier life was challenging and there was a high
infant mortality rate. The church was a place the
people could go for hope and reassurance. Baptism
and communion were the only two sacraments observed
in the Dutch Reformed Church, but marriage and the
last rites were also church affairs. The church
did not only serve people's spiritual needs, it
also provided certain social services, such as schooling
and relief for the poor. By the time of the English
conquest, there were eleven Reformed Churches in
New Netherland.(4)
Dutch culture remained
intact after the English takeover. Many colonists
decided to stay in the colony and live under English
rule. Dutch-speaking enclaves existed, especially
in and around Albany. Albany became increasingly
Anglicized during the French and Indian war when
the city was used as New York's staging grounds,
but enclaves persevered in other places. A form
of Dutch, called Low Dutch, was spoken in settlements
in northern New Jersey and near Schenectady well
into the 19th century. The Reformed Church played
a major role in keeping Dutch language and culture
alive holding services in Dutch. Although the Dutch
eventually became assimilated into American culture,
their legacy remains in place-names and throughout
the English language. The words boss, coleslaw,
cookie, dumb, sleigh, cruller, and yacht, all come
from the Dutch language. The Bronx, Coney Island,
and Catskill all derive their names from Dutch.
The Bronx takes its name from the New Netherland
settler, Jonas Bronck, who had a farm there. Coney
Island was originally called Conyne Eylandt by the
Dutch, which translates to "Rabbit Island" in English.
Catskill was originally called Kats Kill, which
means "cat's stream."(5)
Kill is the Dutch word for stream, and can
be found in many New York and New Jersey place names.
Slavery was another
legacy, however unfortunate, that also outlived
Dutch rule in New York. The first African-American
slaves in New York were used by the Dutch West India
Company, and by the 1630s, slaves were common in
Manhattan. Direct shipments of slaves from Africa
to New Netherland were unusual; most slaves came
from other locations in the Caribbean first. There
was one occurrence of direct shipment from Africa
when a ship from the Guinea coast brought 300 Africans
to New Amsterdam on September 15, 1655. Slaves helped
fill the labor shortage caused by the agricultural
boom in the 1650s. African slaves also worked as
longshoremen and domestic servants. The introduction
of slaves in New Netherland unfortunately started
a slaveholding legacy in New York that lasted into
the 19th century.
The Transformation from New Netherland to New York
In
1644, King Charles II issued to his brother, James
(the Duke of York), a grant of American land that
encompassed the colony of New Netherland. Soon after,
the plan for the English invasion was prepared.
The plan called for three ships and several hundred
soldiers from England to be joined by volunteers
from New England. The fleet arrived in New Amsterdam
Harbor in August 18, 1664, taking the Dutch by surprise.
Stuyvesant made an unsuccessful attempt at diplomacy,
but knew he had to surrender. The Dutch army only
consisted of 150 soldiers, which was not enough
to defend the colony. Stuyvesant surrendered New
Netherland to the English peacefully and returned
to Amsterdam, ashamed.
The new British colony
of New York faced much political turmoil in its
early years. The colony gradually turned English
and business grew slowly. In 1685, the Duke of York
became King James II. James used his newly acquired
power to place New York, New Jersey and other northern
colonies into one dominion called New England. He
placed Governor Andros in charge of the new territory.
This political move upset the citizens who wanted
the colonies to remain individual. Also, because
King James II was Catholic, the citizens were afraid
that he would attempt to catholicize the colonies.
Governor Andros' unpopularity prompted the citizens
to revolt against him. They captured Andros and
put him in jail. To the happiness of many in the
colony, the Protestant William III of Holland, also
known as William of Orange, overthrew James II.
William and James' Protestant daughter, Mary, became
king and queen of England; New York became a royal
colony and the threat of forced Catholicism was
gone.
As the 18th century
progressed, the rivalry between the British and
French fur traders intensified. The French continued
to press south from Canada and north from Louisiana
in order to enhance and strengthen their presence
in America. In 1724, New York Governor William Burnet
decided to make an attempt to weaken the French
fur trade. He knew that the Iroquois held the balance
of power in the trade because they supplied the
furs, so if he could somehow make Albany the center
of trade instead of Montreal, he could faze the
French out of the trade. To do this, Burnet built
a trading post at Oswego on the eastern shore of
Lake Ontario. This fort was easily accessible to
the Six Nations. Burnet also instituted a ban on
Albany's trade with Montreal, intending to strip
the French of goods to trade with the Indians for
fur, causing the Indians to trade with the British
instead. The plan eventually worked and Albany became
the fur-trading center of the colonies. Tensions
between the French and the British over land and
trading rights in America escalated to the French
and Indian War (1755-1763). This war was the final
war in a series of battles between the French, Indians,
and the English that had been happening since the
1680s. The war was fought throughout the colonies,
but New York, especially Albany, was a major staging
ground for British troops. New York was home to
many battles, including the destruction of Oswego
by the French and the takeover of Fort William Henry
where 200 British soldiers were massacred. The British
army did not fare well in the beginning of the war,
but they emerged victorious with the takeover of
the Great Lakes region in 1758, Quebec in 1759,
and Montreal in 1760. The British victory against
the French and the Indians had many benefits for
New York. The northern frontier was opened to settlers,
the economy received a boost from the war demand,
and New York City profited from numerous privateering
expeditions. The end of the French and Indian War
marked a turning point in colonial history because
it allowed New York and the other colonies to focus
on internal matters. The colonists began to form
their own identity, separate from Great Britain.
This independent identity fueled the patriot buildup
in the state during the years preceding the American
Revolution.
Culture in British New York
New York had developed
quite a cosmopolitan culture under British rule.
By the time of the Revolution, the population of
the colony had increased from 40,000 to 175,000.
Only half of the population was British. The Dutch
made up one-eighth of the population and still dominated
Albany. There were also significant populations
of French, German, Scots, Irish, and Swedes. A group
of French Huguenots settled in New Paltz. German
immigrants settled near Albany and founded the town
of Newburgh. There were also nearly 20,000 African
Americans in New York by the late 18th century.
New York's economy during the 18th century consisted
of a mixture of different industries. The fur trade
was dwindling in the northeast as hunting grounds
moved to the west. Farming became the principal
industry; wheat and corn were the major crops. New
York lacked a staple export such as Virginia's tobacco.
Instead New York exported an assortment of goods
including beeswax, candles, flax, hemp, and chocolate.
Other industries, such as tar, pitch, turpentine
and lumber, developed as well. Sugar refineries,
distilleries, and breweries were built in New York.
Shipbuilding and ironworks also began during this
time. Many New Yorkers, such as the famous Captain
William Kidd, took part in piracy, which was very
lucrative during times of war. It was technically
legal under British law to engage in piracy (privateering)
during wartime. Looted goods were often taken to
New York and laundered into the general market.
Increased settlement and industrial growth put New
York on the path to become a major city by the time
of the American Revolution.
Independence
The French and Indian
War was a major precursor to the American Revolution
because it allowed the citizens to concentrate on
domestic affairs. Also, the cost of war in the colonies
prompted England to tax the colonists to cover the
costs, which united many colonists in opposition
to the crown. This unification and opposition to
the Navigation Acts and the Stamp Acts, created
a patriot foundation in New York and throughout
the colonies. New York was home to much of the early
agitation before the Revolution. It was the first
colony to petition the king and Parliament to end
the Stamp Act, which was an excise tax placed on
goods to directly raise money for the crown. Colonists
were outraged over the tax, especially because there
were no American representatives in Parliament.
"No taxation without representation" became the
demand of the colonists. In October of 1765, New
York merchants banned English imports until the
Stamp Act was repealed. The Stamp Act Congress met
in New York City to discuss and protest the tax,
and mobs of protestors swarmed the streets of the
city. New York even had their own version of the
Boston Tea Party when the Sons of Liberty organized
a group of patriots to throw British tea into the
East River. Although New York was home to many patriots,
there were also significant numbers of Tories, especially
on Staten Island.
New York was devastated
by the war. During the summer of 1776, the British
Army forced General George Washington and his troops
to retreat from New York City, leaving it open for
British occupation. New York City was taken by the
British and remained their headquarters until 1783.
Churches and public buildings were used as barracks
and prisons, and the patriots were driven out and
replaced by fugitive Tories. Skirmishes and riots
were common throughout the countryside, which devastated
many towns. The Iroquois alliance with the British
brought Indian attacks in the frontier regions of
the colony, leading to the Massacre at Cherry Hill
in 1778. New York was home to the Sarasota Campaign
in late 1777, which is seen as the decisive victory
for America because of the French alliance. New
York played such an important role in the Revolution.
From the patriotic protests over the Stamp Act to
the many battles on her soil, New York was an integral
part of the war effort for both the Americans and
the British. New York continued to serve the country
when New York City briefly functioned as the nation's
capital from 1789 to 1790.
Continue
>>
(1) Milton M. Klein,
The Empire State; A History of New York, (Ithaca
& London: Cornell University Press, 2001), 4.
(2) Susan Ditmire, "New Jersey History," <www.usgennet.org/usa/nj/state/NJ-History.htm>
(3) Donald S. Johnson,
Charting the Sea of Darkness; The Four Voyages of
Henry Hudson, (New York: Kodansha America, Inc.,
1995), 122.
(4)
Klein, 77.
(5) "Dutch Place Names," The Library of Congress
Website, <http://international.loc.gov/intldl/awkbhtml/kb-1/kb-1-2-5.html>
(6) Klein, 30.
By
Rickie Lazzerini
Historian
BA History
University of California, Santa Barbara
Index
of Historical Reviews
© 2006 Rickie Lazzerini,
All Rights Reserved
This page may be freely linked to but may not
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