Intellectual Activity and Abolitionism

         The decades leading up to the Civil War were thriving with intellectual activity in Massachusetts. Henry David Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson were experimenting with their Transcendentalist theory, Horace Mann campaigned for universal education, and William Lloyd Garrison began his crusade to end slavery. Transcendentalism and abolitionism were the two largest intellectual-political movements to arise in Massachusetts during the antebellum years.

          Transcendentalism was spawned near the end of the Second Great Awakening, but carried a much different tone from the many Protestant revivals. Many believed that the Transcendentalists had exceeded the boundaries of Christian orthodoxy and entered into a whole new belief system that was similar to the religions of the East. The movement began in 1836 when Unitarian minister George Ripley called a meeting with his friends Bronson Alcott, Orestes Brownson, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Frederic Hedge, Convers Francis, and James Freeman Clark, to discuss the limitations of Unitarianism. They developed a set of beliefs that combined Puritan principals of moral duty with a newfound respect for the spirituality of nature. They did not subscribe to the revivalist's beliefs of spiritual transformation and necessity to be saved by the grace of God. The Transcendentalists focused on the deep and individual experience with nature. They believed that God was a universal spirit, very much like nature; therefore to know God, one must be in harmony with nature. Emerson believed that nature was the manifestation of God, and nature was not to be seen as an object but rather a living spirit. The Transcendentalists gained a small movement and, despite their individualistic beliefs, tried on two occasions to create transcendental communal societies.

          Brook Farm became the first community attempt by a group of transcendentalists. George and Sophia Ripley founded a joint-stock company in 1841 and, with ten investors, bought Brook Farm in West Roxbury. Their intentions were to create a place where they and their friends could live their lives according to their transcendental principals. They hoped that they could achieve a harmony between being self-sufficient and having time to do intellectual work. They believed leisure time and mental freedom was important to the faith. The original members of Brook Farm include Nathaniel Hawthorne, Sophia Peabody, and thirty other members. Neither Emerson nor Thoreau had any ties to the project because they believed that individualism was too important a factor in their journey to transcendence. Brook Farm would last a mere six years before ending amid financial collapse in 1847.

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          Bronson Alcott's Fruitlands was noted as the second transcendental communal attempt. Alcott and his followers were against the slaughter or domestication of animals for any purpose, though they were eventually forced to use a horse and an ox to assist them with farming. They survived only on fruit and water, believing that vegetables should not be eaten because they grew downward into the earth, making them lower in nature. In addition they would only were clothes made of linen because of their anti-slavery (cotton) and anti-animal product (wool) beliefs. This community was based on convictions so extreme that it only lasted from June of 1843 to December of the same year.

          Another aspect of the growing intellectual activity in Massachusetts was abolitionism. In 1831, William Lloyd Garrison began his anti-slavery newspaper, The Liberator. A year later, the New England Anti-Slavery Society was formed in Boston. In addition to the newspapers and societies, abolitionists helped slaves escape their masters through what became known as the Underground Railroad. This abolitionist spirit dominated New England in the years prior to the Civil War and helped the Union win the fight against slavery.    

 
The Civil War

          Massachusetts sent many citizens to fight throughout the war and also raised the first African-American regiment in United States history. In addition to sending troops, Massachusetts's doctors formed the Sanitary Commission to look after the health of the soldiers. A total of 146,730 soldiers from Massachusetts fought in the war, and 13,942 died.

          Between 1862 and 1870, a small, but steady, flow of refugee slaves from the South came to central Massachusetts. In those years, 370 blacks, mainly from North Carolina and Virginia, migrated to Worcester County, significantly augmenting the African-American community. A chain migration continued after the war and contributed to the development of an African-American enclave by 1870.

Table 2: Civil War Statistics for the State of Massachusetts

Furnished White Troops	122,781
Furnished Sailors and Marines	19,983
Furnished African-American Troops	2,996
Furnished Native-American Troops	0
Total	146,730
Killed and Mortally Wounded	6,115
Died of Disease	5,530
Died as a Prisoner	1,483
Died from Accidents	257
Died from Cause other than Battle	557
Total	13,942

Immigration

          During the 17th and 18th centuries, Massachusetts' immigration was restricted to English people, but immigration from all over Europe increased during the 19th century. Drawn to Massachusetts because of the industrial opportunities, European immigrants transformed the predominantly English population into one of much diversity. By 1930, 65 percent of Massachusetts' population was either foreign born or had a foreign born parent. Scots and Irish dominated pre-Civil War immigration, while eastern and southern Europeans dominated the late 19th and early 20th century immigration. Before the turn of the century, Finns, Lithuanians, and Turks began to immigrate to the state, and by 1900, Italians, Portuguese, French, Poles, Germans, and Slavs added to the immigrant population. The peak years of immigration were 1907, 1913, and 1914. In more recent years, South American, Asian, and African immigration has increased, further diversifying the state. This chart shows the growth of immigration as a whole during the latter years of the 19th century. It also shows the beginning of eastern and southern European immigration to the state.

Table 3: Massachusetts' Immigrant Population 1850 & 1890

Nationality	1850	1890
Irish	115,917	259,902
Canadians	15,029	115,029
English	16,685	76,400
Scotch	4,469	21,909
Germans	4,417	28,034
Scandinavians	503	22,655
French	805	3,273
Italian	196	8,066
Portuguese	290	3,051

          The most influential immigrant group to arrive in Massachusetts was the Irish. Although highly discriminated upon arrival, the Irish were so large in numbers that they came to dominate the work force and political scene in Boston. The first Irish immigrants to come to the United States worked on the Erie Canal. This wave of immigrants arrived before the mass immigration of Irish due to the potato famine. In Ireland in October of 1845, a serious blight ruined three quarters of the year's potato crops. The blight returned the next year, and an outbreak of typhus, combined with starvation, killed 350,000 people. The potato famine of 1845 and 1846 continued to affect the population for the rest of the decade and it is estimated that one million people died due to the famine. This unfortunate event highly stimulated immigration to America.

          In Massachusetts, the Irish became heavily involved in politics. The Irish, through a network of churches, clubs, and bars, pulled their votes and began to elect Irish officials. The trend continued until the ghetto network of churches and bars turned into a powerful political machine. With the election of John F. Fitzgerald as mayor of Boston in 1905, the Boston Irish began a political dynasty that would last nearly a century. For almost ninety years the Irish dominated the politics of the city. The Irish mayoral monopoly did not end until the election of Boston's first Italian-American mayor, Thomas Menino in 1993.

          Italians also accounted for a large portion of the turn-of-the-century immigration. Most of the Italians in Boston were from southern Italy, mainly Sicily and Campagna. Natural disasters and warfare drove many of the immigrants to America in search of greater opportunities. In Boston, the Italians mainly settled on the decaying and crowded North End. This area became the center of Italian life in Boston. Even those Italians who did not reside in the North End went there to shop and attend church. The first Italian enclave in Boston grew from the community of 200 Genovese immigrants who settled on Ferry Court in the 1860s and continued to grow as more Italians immigrated to the area. The Italians of Boston created a rich culture based around family dynamics and church. The most popular occupation among Italian immigrants was laborer, followed by barber, shoemaker, clerk, and fruit vender.

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          Another significant immigrant group was the Jews. The Jews of Boston were mainly from the Russian empire. They left Russia for a number of reasons, including escape from the draft. Boston became a popular destination because many already had friends and family there (chain migration) and because of the economic opportunities available in the city. During the last three decades of the 19th century many Jews lived in the North End, their boundaries being Hanover Street on the southeast, Endicott Street on the west, and Prince Street on the northeast.

          Another immigrant group worth mentioning is the Portuguese. Portuguese immigration to Massachusetts is anchored in old roots with isolated cases of Portuguese immigration dating back to the 17th century, but it wasn't until the 1830s and 1840s that they began to migrate to Massachusetts in significant numbers. Commercial ties between New Bedford and the Azores began in the 1830s, bringing about a wave of Azorean immigration. By 1867, the Portuguese of New Bedford became numerous enough to warrant a priest to be brought in to care for their religious needs. The majority of Portuguese immigrants in New England lived in the southeastern part of Massachusetts and in Rhode Island. By 1920, nearly 30,000 Portuguese, or those of Portuguese decent, lived in New Bedford.

          Immigration curtailed after the Immigration Act of 1917 required foreigners to pass literacy tests, and again after the Immigration Act of 1924 set a specific quota of immigrants for each country. These laws restricted immigration from southern and eastern European countries the most. This chart exemplifies the impact the immigration laws had on the numbers of immigrants from certain countries. Notice how immigration from England decreased only slightly, but eastern European immigration was cut drastically.

Table 4: Immigration Discrepancy Before and After the Enactment of Immigration Laws

Nationality	1913	1928
Armenian	2,367	192
English	6,541	5,458
Finnish	2,239	47
German	938	689
Greek	5,919	251
Hebrew	6,109	364
Irish	6,607	4,934
Italian	23,769	1,074
Lithuanian	3,957	28
Polish	13,627	200
Portuguese	9,002	202
Russian	5,266	38
Scandinavian	2,374	681
Scotch	3,090	2,861
Syrian	1,692	52

          In recent years, immigration from Latin America and Asia has increased, diversifying the population. Although over eighty percent of Massachusetts' population in Caucasian, the metropolitan area of Boston has become significantly more racially diverse. Only half of Boston's population is white.

Table 5: Racial Composition of Massachusetts, 2003

Race/Ethnicity	Percent of Population
White	81.9%
Hispanic	6.8%
Black	5.4%
Asian	3.8%
American Indian	.2%
Mixed	2.03%

          The ancestry of Massachusetts' white population is varied, but dominated by Irish. Irish, Italian, English, French, and German are the leading ancestries among the Caucasian people in the state.

Table 6: Ethnic Origin of Massachusetts' White Population, 2003

Ethnicity/ Ancestry	Percent of Population
Irish	22.5%
Italian	13.5%
English	11.4%
German	5.9%

          Boston's ethnic and racial composition is significantly different from the state as a whole, boasting larger Black, Latino, and Asian populations. As the "Irish Capital of America," the Irish remain Boston's largest ethnic group.

Table 7: Racial Composition of Boston, 2000 Census

Race/Ethnicity	Percent of Population
White	54.48%
Black	25.33%
Latino	14.44%
Asian	8%
American Indiana	.4%