African Americans on the Move

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African Americans on the Move:
A Look at the Forced and Voluntary Movement of Blacks Within America
© 2006 Rickie Lazzerini

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Historical Review 2.2

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Black Towns

A significant number of blacks left the South after the Civil War. Most went to the cities in search of industrial jobs, but a small number bought land in all black communities. During the late 19th century, hundreds of black towns, also called freedom towns, were created in the north and the west. In these towns, blacks hoped they could live peacefully without the burden of racism. Some towns were more successful than others. The towns were usually started by a group of investors or speculators, who sold the land to the settlers at a low price. Many of the prospectors originally acquired the land for little or no money, so their profits were large. Most of the towns that did not have a nearby railroad failed to persevere. Although many of the black towns did not survive, they were an important step in black migration and socio-economic independence.

One of the first black towns to be founded was Brooklyn, Illinois. The beginnings of this town are unclear, but oral histories credit the creation of the town to eleven black families comprised of free blacks and fugitive slaves who came from Missouri in the late 1820s. These families were in flight of slavery and racism and were looking for a peaceful place to live. The town started as an agricultural settlement, but its placement in the Midwest allowed it to become industrialized by the late 19th century. The industrialization of the town enabled it to survive throughout the 19th century and into the 20th. Brooklyn became a model for other black towns that were created after the turn of the century, such as Urban Crest, Ohio; Kinloch, Missouri; Allensworth, California; and Robbins, Illinois.(15)

Another important black town founded in the 19th century was Nicodemus, Kansas. Kansas was the most popular destination for blacks who wanted to flee the South after the Civil War because of its proximity and availability of land. Blacks from all over the South were represented in the state, but most of the blacks who migrated to Kansas were from Kentucky, Tennessee, or Missouri. Promoters capitalized on this migration and set up townsites for all black communities. Nicodemus, located in the South Solomon River Valley, was the first of these in Kansas. The promoters, which were all black except for one, recruited the first of their settlers from Topeka, Kansas. These settlers had gathered in Topeka after hearing of available lands nearby. They were brought to the land in 1877 and settled on farm homesteads. Nearly 150 more were recruited from Georgetown, Kentucky the following year. Life in Nicodemus was hard during the first year. Many of the settlers had spent most of their money on the journey and land, therefore they had nothing left to buy supplies. Many took jobs in nearby towns or with the railroad to get them through the winter. The following year was more successful, and by 1880 the town had a school, three churches, a hotel, three stores, and a stable.(16) This growth continued through the 1880s, but the lack of a railroad connection stunted the town's development. By the end of the decade families started leaving in search of better opportunities. A few would remain, but Nicodemus failed to compete with businesses from nearby towns. This was typical of many towns that did not have a railroad connection. Today Nicodemus is seen as a place to celebrate black heritage.

Table 5: Black Towns Created During the 19th and Early 20th Centuries(17)

State	Black Towns
Alabama	Cedarlake, Greedwood Village, Hobson City, Plateau, Shepherdsville
Arkansas	Edmondson, Thomasville
California	Abila, Allensworth, Bowles, Victorville
Illinois	Brooklyn
Iowa	Buxton
Kansas	Nicodemus
Kentucky	Camp Nelson, New Zion
Michigan	Idlewind, Marlborogh
MIssissippi	Expose, Mound Bayou, Renova
New Mexico	Blackdom
Oklahoma	Arkansas Colored, Bailey, Boley, Bookertee, Canadian Colored, Chase, Clearview, Ferguson, Forman, Gibson Station, Grayson, Landston City, Lewisville, Liberty, Lima, Lincoln City, Mantu, Mashalltown, North Fork Colored, Overton, Porter, Redbird, Rentiescille, Summit, Taft, Tatum, Tullahassee, Vernon, Wellston Colony, Wybark
Tennessee	Hortense, New Bedford
Texas	Andy, Board House, Booker, Independence Heights, Kendleton, Mill City, Oldham, Roberts, Union City

Blacks in the Far West

Most of the blacks who left the South during the late 19th century ventured north, but some made it as far west as California, Oregon, and Washington. The first blacks in the west came with the Spanish explorers in the 1500s. Others had migrated north from Mexico after slavery was abolished in 1821. The first American blacks to arrive in the far west came as settlers to Oregon Territory in the 1840s and 1850s. One of these men, George Washington, migrated to Oregon in the 1850s and became a homesteader. He went on to found the city of Centralia, Washington in 1872.

Most of the blacks who were attracted to the far west during the 19th century went to California. Many free blacks and black slaves took part in the California Gold Rush. By 1852, over 2,000 free blacks had migrated to the state, although they were faced with much hostility. The California State Constitution denied blacks the right to vote or serve in the state's militia. Half of all the blacks who migrated to California during this time settled in Sacramento and San Francisco. By 1849, the black population of San Francisco had founded the Mutual Benefit and Relief Society, and by 1854 the city had three black churches, a black cultural center, and a library.(18) The California Gold Rush offered an opportunity for free blacks to move to a new place and try a new profession. The Gold Rush was ultimately responsible for creating an African American presence in the far west.

Although not the far west, Oklahoma and Texas became important destinations for blacks in the 19th century. By 1890, there were 500,000 blacks living in the two states.(19) Many blacks took part in the Oklahoma land rushes (claiming of former Indian lands), and by 1910, 25 black communities had been established in the state. It was not uncommon for blacks in the Southwest to become cowboys. Over 5,000 black men were cattle drivers in the years following the Civil War.

Table 6: Growth of the Black Population in the West, 1840-1900(20)

State	1840	1850	1860	1870	1880	1890	1900
Arizona	---	---	---	26	155	1,357	1,848
California	---	902	4,086	4,272	6,018	11,322	11.045
Colorado	---	---	48	436	2,435	6,215	8,570
Idaho	---	---	---	60	53	201	940
Iowa	---	333	1,069	5,762	9,576	10,485	12,693
Kansas	---	---	627	17,108	43,107	40,710	52,003
Minnesota	188	29	259	759	2,564	3,683	4.950
Montana	---	---	---	183	346	1,400	1,523
Nebraska	---	---	82	789	2,385	8,913	6,289
Nevada	---	---	45	367	488	242	134
New Mexico	---	22	85	172	1,015	1,936	1,160
North Dakota	---	---	---	94	113	373	495
Oklahoma	---	---	---	---	---	21,000	55,000
Oregon	---	207	128	346	487	1,186	1,106
South Dakota	---	---	---	94	113	373	455
Utah	---	50	59	118	232	588	672
Washington	---	---	30	207	325	1,602	2,542
Wisconsin	196	636	1171	2113	2702	2444	2542
Wyoming	---	---	---	183	346	1,400	1,523
Total	384	2,179	7,689	33,109	72,575	115,598	165,432

Twentieth Century Migration

The greatest amount of African American migration took place during World War One and continued through the Second World War. It took the heavy labor demands of World War One to finally provide an opportunity for a large number of blacks to leave the South. The industrialized north received many government contracts for building war goods, as did the shipbuilding and airplane building centers of the west. These labor demands created by the war enabled blacks in the South to leave for greater opportunities in the North or the West. In 1900, 90% of African Americans lived in the South. This changed dramatically during the war; between 1915 and 1920, half of a million blacks (10% of the South's black population) migrated to the North or the West. The Midwest received the most migrants, especially the cities of Philadelphia, Detroit, Cleveland, Chicago, and St. Louis.(21) Sometimes entire communities or church congregations would migrate together. This chain migration was important in building strong communities in their new cities. Many blacks also left the South as members of the Armed Forces. During WWI, 370,000 African Americans served in the military.(22)

The migration of blacks out of the South was even greater during and after the Second World War. During this time (between 1940 and 1970) over five million blacks migrated away from the South.(23) The increase in service jobs during and after the war permitted the migration to continue. Most of the blacks settled in large cities. The West received more African American migrants than ever before and its black population grew by 33%. These migrants usually settled in the industrial cities along the coasts of California, Oregon, and Washington. This migration caused a major demographic shift throughout the United States and has remained fairly steady throughout the 20th century.

Conclusion

The history of African American migration in the United States shares many parallels with the population as a whole, but the unfair regulations placed on blacks, mainly slavery, made the African American story of settlement unique. By following the history of the slave trade, the shifts in slave economy, and the mobility of free blacks, we can piece together the narrative of black mobility in the United States. Although it shares common threads with white migration, such as the abandonment of rural farm work for industrial labor, it also has its own unique patterns, such as the tendency to form separate settlements. By following the specific movements of African Americans throughout the country, we can gain a better understanding of how social, political, and economic situations affected the African American population on a personal level.

(15)Sundiata Keita Cha-Jua, America's First Black Town: Brooklyn, Illinois, 1830-1915, (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2000), 2.
(16) Kenneth Marvin Hamilton, Black Towns and Profit: Promotion and Development in the Trans-Appalachian West, 1877-1915, (Urbana and Chicago, University of Illinois Press, 1991), 22.
(17) Hamilton, 153.
(18) William Loren Katz, The Black West, Third Edition, Revised and Expanded, (Seattle: Open Hand Publishing Inc., 1987) 127-128.
(19) Katz, 144.
(20) W. Sherman Savage, Blacks in the West, (Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1976), 201.
(21) Roark, 595.
(22) Roark, 598.
(23) Nelson Lichtenstein, et. al., Who Built America? Working People and the Nation's Economy, Politics, Culture, and Society, Volume II, 1877-Present, (New York: Worth Publishers, 2000), 581.

By Rickie Lazzerini
Historian
Kindred Trails Worldwide Genealogy Resources

BA History
University of California, Santa Barbara


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